Osmotic Diuretics
ADVERSE EFFECTS The major adverse effects of mannitol include: Hyponatremia/hypernatremia. Osmotic agents are associated with an initial phase of hyponatremia, which results from the systemic efflux of intracellular fluid in…
Tumors of the Bladder: Histopathologic Findings and Staging System
Patients with invasive disease treated with cystectomy should undergo lifelong follow-up, with a chest radiograph, complete metabolic panel, liver function tests, contrast-enhanced C T, and urine cytology performed every 6…
Tumors of the Bladder: Risk Factors, Symptoms, and Physical Examination
Metastases most frequently occur in lymph nodes, liver, lung, bone, and adrenal glands. CT or MRI of the abdomen and pelvis is used to assess for nodal, liver, and adrenal…
Tumors of the Bladder: Cystoscopic and Radiographic Appearance
Although grading can only be performed by histologic examination of tissue, cystoscopic findings may have some predictive value. For example, a histologically benign papilloma or a low-grade papillary tumor usually…
Tumors of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter: Appearance (Ureteroscopic, Gross, and Microscopic) and Staging System
FOLLOW-UP A significant subset of the patients treated for urothelial carcinoma of the upper tract will subsequently develop bladder cancer. Thus it is essential to perform surveillance of all patients…
Tumors of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter: Risk Factors and Radiographic Appearance
Once the presence of an upper tract tumor has been established, cystoureteroscopy should be performed to examine the entire urine collecting system. A retrograde pyeloureterogram performed during this procedure often…
Wilms Tumor: Genetics, Presentation, and Radiographic Findings
PRESENTATION AND DIAGNOSIS In a vast majority of children with Wilms tumor, the presenting symptom is a palpable abdominal mass, which may be associated with abdominal pain, hematuria (from extension…
Wilms Tumor: Gross Appearance and Histopathologic Findings
FOLLOW-UP The recommended schedule for follow-up examinations and testing after treatment depends on the initial stage of the cancer and treatment type. Follow-up visits should consist of physical examinations and…
Renal Cell Carcinoma: Staging System and Sites of Metastasis
Many centers determine their follow-up schedule based on tumor stage. Patients with localized tumors that are less than 7 cm in diameter (T1) are at lowest risk for recurrence. Such…
Renal Cell Carcinoma: Histopathologic Findings
Several biologic agents have been recently developed and studied as treatment for disseminated clear cell RCC. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors, such as sorafenib and sunitinib, have been found to inhibit tumor…
