1. What is contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN), and how does it occur? Iodinated contrast media can lead to a usually reversible form of non-oliguric acute kidney injury (AKI) that occurs typically…

1. What is rhabdomyolysis? Rhabdomyolysis is a condition characterized by muscle injury leading to myocyte necrosis and the release of intracellular contents into the circulation. The term is usually applied…

1. How is sepsis-associated acute kidney injury (SA-AKI) defined? SA-AKI is characterized by the simultaneous presence of AKI (based on a consensus definition such as the Acute Kidney Injury Network…

Background 1. What does cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) mean? The term CRS has been used to define different clinical conditions in which heart and kidney dysfunction overlap. A consensus classification of…

Drugs covered 1. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) 2. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) 3. Sodium phosphate 4. Pamidronate and zoledronate 5. Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) 6. Checkpoint inhibitors…

1. What is hepatorenal syndrome? The current definition of hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) updated in 2007 by the International Ascites Club (IAC) states that it is “a potentially reversible syndrome that…

1. When should renal replacement therapy (RRT) be initiated? There are accepted urgent indications for RRT in patients with acute kidney injury (AKI) and generally include: refractory fluid overload, hyperkalemia…

1. What is acute kidney injury (AKI)? AKI is a sudden decrease in kidney function occurring over a period of hours to days. The acute decrease in glomerular filtration rate…

1. What are the major clinical uses for a kidney biopsy? A kidney biopsy is performed to help establish a diagnosis and aid in the selection of an appropriate therapy…

1. What is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)? The production of urine and the removal of waste products by the kidneys begin by filtering blood across the glomerular membrane. Blood…