Hypokalemia and hyperkalemia
1. Describe normal potassium balance. Approximately 98% of total body potassium resides inside cells, making it the most abundant cation in the intracellular fluid (ICF). The total body stores approximately…
NEPHROLOGY
Genetic disorders of sodium transport
1. What is the difference between mendelian (or monogenic) forms of hypertension and essential hypertension? Essential hypertension has a multifactorial etiology, including demographic and environmental (dietary) factors, and genetic predisposition,…
Other forms of secondary hypertension
1. Besides renovascular and the traditional endocrine causes of hypertension, what are eight uncommon, but important, causes of secondary hypertension? • Obstructive sleep apnea (typically causing hyperaldosteronism) • Drug-induced hypertension…
Volume disorders and assessment
Volume 1. What is meant by volume? Physicians use the terms “volume” and “extracellular fluid volume” interchangeably. Because sodium is largely restricted to the extracellular fluid (ECF), total body sodium…
Nonpharmacologic treatment of hypertension
1. What nonpharmacologic strategies can be used to treat hypertension? Several nonpharmacologic strategies are available to improve blood pressure control among essential hypertensive patients. By extension, similar strategies may be…
Pharmacologic treatment of hypertension
1. When is pharmacologic treatment of hypertension indicated? When an individual’s blood pressure (BP) does not fall below goal after a suitable period of intensive lifestyle modifications, antihypertensive drug therapy…
Hypertensive emergencies
1. How does a “hypertensive emergency” differ from “hypertensive urgency”? A “hypertensive emergency” is a clinical situation in which severely elevated blood pressure is associated with acute, progressive target-organ damage…
Resistant hypertension
1. What is resistant hypertension (RH)? Is it the same as refractory hypertension? Hypertension is considered resistant if the blood pressure (BP) cannot be reduced below target levels ( Box…
Endocrine hypertension
Hyperaldosteronism 1. What is hyperaldosteronism? Hyperaldosteronism is a disorder with a characteristic set of signs and symptoms resulting from excessive effects of aldosterone or a similar mineralocorticoid agent, which typically…
Renovascular disease
1. What clinical syndromes are associated with renal artery stenosis? Renovascular hypertension, progressive loss of kidney function from ischemic nephropathy, and recurrent episodes of flash pulmonary edema (meaning acute/abrupt onset…
