ADVERSE EFFECTS The major adverse effects of thiazide diuretics include: Hypokalemia Hyponatremia. By inhibiting solute reabsorption in the distal nephron, thiazides prevent maximal urine dilution. In addition, significant fluid losses…
COMMON AGENTS The major loop diuretics are listed in the plate. INDICATIONS The major indications for loop diuretics include: Peripheral or pulmonary edema Hypertension ADVERSE EFFECTS The major adverse effects…
ADVERSE EFFECTS The major adverse effects of CAIs include: Metabolic acidosis Nephrolithiasis, owing to urine alkalinization Increased serum ammonia concentration, secondary to impaired renal excretion, which may cause encephalopathy in…
ADVERSE EFFECTS The major adverse effects of mannitol include: Hyponatremia/hypernatremia. Osmotic agents are associated with an initial phase of hyponatremia, which results from the systemic efflux of intracellular fluid in…
Patients with invasive disease treated with cystectomy should undergo lifelong follow-up, with a chest radiograph, complete metabolic panel, liver function tests, contrast-enhanced C T, and urine cytology performed every 6…
Although grading can only be performed by histologic examination of tissue, cystoscopic findings may have some predictive value. For example, a histologically benign papilloma or a low-grade papillary tumor usually…
Metastases most frequently occur in lymph nodes, liver, lung, bone, and adrenal glands. CT or MRI of the abdomen and pelvis is used to assess for nodal, liver, and adrenal…
FOLLOW-UP A significant subset of the patients treated for urothelial carcinoma of the upper tract will subsequently develop bladder cancer. Thus it is essential to perform surveillance of all patients…
FOLLOW-UP The recommended schedule for follow-up examinations and testing after treatment depends on the initial stage of the cancer and treatment type. Follow-up visits should consist of physical examinations and…
Once the presence of an upper tract tumor has been established, cystoureteroscopy should be performed to examine the entire urine collecting system. A retrograde pyeloureterogram performed during this procedure often…
