Cardiorenal syndrome
Background 1. What does cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) mean? The term CRS has been used to define different clinical conditions in which heart and kidney dysfunction overlap. A consensus classification of…
Medications
Drugs covered 1. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) 2. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) 3. Sodium phosphate 4. Pamidronate and zoledronate 5. Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) 6. Checkpoint inhibitors…
Hepatorenal syndrome
1. What is hepatorenal syndrome? The current definition of hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) updated in 2007 by the International Ascites Club (IAC) states that it is “a potentially reversible syndrome that…
Management options: Continuous renal replacement therapy
1. When should renal replacement therapy (RRT) be initiated? There are accepted urgent indications for RRT in patients with acute kidney injury (AKI) and generally include: refractory fluid overload, hyperkalemia…
Epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology, and diagnosis
1. What is acute kidney injury (AKI)? AKI is a sudden decrease in kidney function occurring over a period of hours to days. The acute decrease in glomerular filtration rate…
Kidney biopsy
1. What are the major clinical uses for a kidney biopsy? A kidney biopsy is performed to help establish a diagnosis and aid in the selection of an appropriate therapy…
Measurement of glomerular filtration rate
1. What is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)? The production of urine and the removal of waste products by the kidneys begin by filtering blood across the glomerular membrane. Blood…
Urinalysis
1. What is uroscopy? Uroscopy comes from the word “uroscopia,” meaning scientific examination of the urine. It is derived from the Greek words ouron meaning urine and skopeo meaning to…
Kidney imaging techniques
1. List the most commonly used imaging modalities for the kidneys. • Radiography (plain film, excretory urography [EU], retrograde pyelography, cystography) • Ultrasonography (US) • Computed tomography (CT) scan •…
History and physical diagnosis
1. How do patients with kidney disease typically present? Patients with kidney disease typically present in several ways: • Abnormal blood laboratory studies (e.g., elevated blood urea nitrogen [BUN] and…
