Palliative Operations for Unresectable Pancreatic Cancer


Author

Year

N

Technical success (%)

Morbidity (%)

Mortality (%)

Recurrence (%)

Stent

Surgery

Stent

Surgery

Stent

Surgery

Stent

Surgery

Bornman et al.

1986

50

84

76

28

32

8

20

38

16

Shepard et al.

1988

52

82

92

7

14

9

20

30

0

Anderson et al.

1989

50

96

88

36

20

20

24

28

16

Smith et al.

1994

201

94

95

11

29

3

14

34

2

Artifon et al.

2006

30

100

100

40

60

0

0

20

0


N number of patients



A hepaticojejunostomy is the standard palliative biliary bypass technique. A side-to-side choledochoduodenostomy is generally avoided as tumor progression can result in recurrent obstruction and cholangitis. It is also associated with a higher rate of hepatolithiasis, cholangitis (10–15 %), and the rare “sump syndrome” where the distal bile duct serves as a reservoir for stones and debris [16]. A cholecystojejunostomy, although technically easier to perform, relies on cystic duct patency to divert bile flow. Endoscopic studies of the hepatocystic junction suggest that only 50 % of incoming patients will be candidates for a cholecystojejunostomy. In addition, the tumor may involve the hepatocystic junction as it progresses leading to recurrent jaundice. A study utilizing Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Medicare claims data demonstrated that patients treated with a cholecystojejunostomy had a biliary intervention rate of 7.5 % compared to 2.9 % for those treated with a hepaticojejunostomy at 1 year [17]. Recent reports indicate that a laparoscopic cholecystojejunostomy can be performed safely with a low rate of recurrent biliary obstruction [18]. This discrepancy between open and laparoscopic results warrants further investigation, however, and hepaticojejunostomy must be considered the optimal current palliative surgical approach for unresectable pancreas cancer. Laparoscopic hepaticojejunostomy is being performed with favorable outcomes. It is associated with less pain, earlier return of bowel function and a shorter hospital stay when compared to the open approach [19]. These studies, however, were small and the procedure requires advance laparoscopic skills to master. Robotic biliary bypass has been reported in the management of locally advanced pancreas cancer. To date, there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate superiority of the technique to the laparoscopic approach.


Roux-en-Y Hepaticojejunostomy


After determining that the tumor is locally advanced and a palliative hepaticojejunostomy is indicated, a cholecystectomy is performed and the hepatic duct is transected using electrocautery. A bulldog is placed on the proximal duct to reduce bile spillage. Care is taken not to injure a replaced right hepatic artery. The distal duct is oversewn with 4-0 Prolene. The jejunum is transected 20 cm from the ligament of Treitz with a GIA stapler and a 60-cm Roux limb is brought up in for an end-to-side anastomosis. The anastomosis is completed using interrupted 4-0 PDS sutures. It is important to incorporate the jejunal mucosa into the anastomosis with great care as to prevent transient biliary obstruction from edematous non-included mucosa [20]. The alimentary limb is joined to the Roux limb in a stapled or hand-sewn side-to-side or end-to-side fashion.

Other suitable options include a loop hepaticojejunostomy or a side-to-side hepaticojejunostomy without dividing the bile duct. A Roux-en-Y reconstruction, however, is associated with less anastomotic tension, postoperative cholangitis, and may lessen the clinical severity of potential biliary leaks.



Gastric Outlet Obstruction


Gastric outlet obstruction significantly affects quality of life through intractable nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. The resulting dehydration, electrolyte abnormalities, and malnutrition can delay the administration of palliative chemotherapy. Delayed gastric emptying can be differentiated from mechanical obstruction using endoscopy and radiographic studies, although it is important to realize that both conditions can coexist. Delayed gastric emptying should be managed medically using prokinetic agents, and procedural interventions should be reserved for mechanical gastroduodenal malignant obstruction.

The palliation of mechanical obstruction can be performed endoscopically or surgically. Endoscopic procedures include self-expanding enteral stents or endoscopically placed gastrostomy tubes/gastrojejunostomy tubes. Self-expanding metallic stent design is similar to that used for biliary stenting but duodenal stents are longer and have a larger caliber (18–23 mm). Studies examining the efficacy and safety of endoscopic stenting using enteral SEMS report a shorter time to oral intake, shorter hospital stay, and lower morbidity and mortality compared to surgical approaches [2124]. During follow-up, however, 30–40 % of patients develop recurrent duodenal obstruction from tumor ingrowth or stent migration [25]. Duodenal stents can land or migrate to cover the ampulla of Vater and have been associated with a higher rate of major complications including duodenal perforation [20]. These results indicate that endoscopic stenting is associated with lower immediate complications but less durability and a higher reintervention rate. As such, a surgical bypass procedure should be performed in patients with anticipated longer survival. Studies comparing endoscopic stenting to gastrojejunostomies are summarized in Table 20.2.


Table 20.2
Palliative endoscopic stenting versus gastrojejunostomy for gastric outlet obstruction

























































































































Study

Number of patients

Morbidity (%)

Hospital stay (Days)

Reintervention rate (%)

Time to tolerate a diet

Notes

ES

Surgery

ES

Surgery

ES

Surgery

ES

Surgery

ES

Surgery

No et al. 2014 (2001–2010)

72

41

9.7

7.3

16

18

43

5.5

2

5

Late complications: tumor ingrowth, stent migration and perforation:

p = 0.74

p = 0.12

p < 0.01

p = 0.046

 ES = 44.4 %

 GJ = 12.2 %

p < 0.001

Khashab et al. 2013 (2001–2010)

12

227

11.7

22.1

10.1

13

27.3

8.7

NR
 

p = 0.02

p < 0.01

p < 0.01

Jeurnink et al. 2010 (2006–2008)

21

18

38

28

5

8

33

11

NR
 

p = 0.02

p < 0.01

p < 0.01

Mehta et al. 2006 (2002–2005)

13

14

17

62

5.2

11.4

NR

NR

GJ were done laparoscopically

p = 0.02

FIori et al. 2004 (2001–2002)

 9

9

22.2

22.2

3.1

10

11.1

0

2.1

6.3

Follow-up for 3 months only

p < 0.01

p <0.01


ES endoscopic stenting, OR odds ratio

Placement of a gastrostomy tube (G-tube) or gastrojejunostomy tube (GJ-tube) can be performed endoscopically or placed by Interventional Radiology (IR). G-tubes help improve nausea and allow for the removal of the nasogastric tube (NGT). This may allow for some liquid intake and discharge home. Median survival rates after G-tube placement are low, however, and have been reported with ranges as low as 13–17 days [26, 27]. Some studies indicate that endoscopic placement may be associated with a lower complication rate when compared to IR placement [28]. Occasionally, if the duodenum is not completely obstructed and the procedure is technically feasible, a GJ-tube can be placed for distal nutrition.

Palliative surgical options include a loop versus Roux-en-Y gastrojejunostomy performed open or laparoscopically. The concept of prophylactic gastrojejunostomy (GJ) for asymptomatic patients with unresectable pancreas cancer found at the time of attempted resection has been addressed in several studies. Based on level 1 evidence, a gastrojejunostomy should be performed in most cases, unless a life expectancy of less than 3–6 months is expected [29, 30]. Although prophylactic surgical bypass adds to operative time, it does not increase operative morbidity/mortality or length of hospital stay and is associated with a marked decrease in the rate of developing gastric outlet obstruction. A study from John Hopkins Medical Center randomized 87 patients with unresectable pancreas cancer and no risk of duodenal obstruction, identified intraoperatively, to prophylactic gastrojejunostomy versus no gastrojejunostomy. None of the 44 patients who underwent a gastrojejunostomy developed gastric outlet obstruction, while 19 % of patients who did not receive a GJ developed obstruction and required an intervention. Postoperative morbidity rates were comparable (gastrojejunostomy 32 %, no gastrojejunostomy 33 %) and mean survival for both groups was 8.3 months [29]. A similar study from the Netherlands comparing biliary bypass versus biliary and gastric bypass reported much lower rate of gastric outlet obstruction in patients who received a prophylactic gastrojejunostomy (6 % vs. 41 %) [30].


Gastrojejunostomy


Historically, most surgeons avoided a retrocolic gastrojejunostomy due to concerns of placing the anastomosis close to the tumor bed and the need to go through the transverse mesocolon. In addition, the antecolic approach has several theoretical advantages: a more mobile jejunal loop with less angulation and further away from a possible pancreatic leak. There is no convincing evidence, however, that an antecolic approach prevents late anastomotic failure. There are several studies comparing the antecolic and retrocolic approaches with particular focus on the incidence of delayed gastric emptying. Some studies favor an antecolic approach while others did not find any correlation between the method of construction and DGE [3135]. A recent randomized controlled trial compared patients with an antecolic (n = 121) and retrocolic (n = 125) reconstruction and found no significant difference in the rate of DGE (34 % vs. 36 %) [36]. A recent retrospective study from Massachusetts General Hospital looked at 800 patients and compared antecolic (n = 400) vs. retrocolic (n = 400) approaches. The study concluded that an antecolic approach was associated with a decreased rate of low grade “Grade A” DGE only (p = 0.038) [37]. With such controversial data, the method of reconstruction should be based on the surgeon’s experience and comfort level. Studies comparing the antecolic and retrocolic approaches are summarized in Table 20.3.
Jan 29, 2017 | Posted by in GASTROENTEROLOGY | Comments Off on Palliative Operations for Unresectable Pancreatic Cancer

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