Peri-procedural anticoagulation and antiplatelet management is discussed in a separate chapter. A careful medical history and physical examination may help determine patients with risk factors (such as anticoagulation use and certain comorbidities) and help guide the proper management plan. Endoscopists should perform pre-procedural coagulation testing (platelet count, INR, partial thromboplastin time) selectively on the basis of the patient’s medical history (bleeding, liver disease, malabsorption, malnutrition), physical examination (bruising or petechiae), and associated risk factors (anticoagulation, prolonged antibiotic use) [12]. Platelet transfusion should be considered in patients with platelets less than 50,000/μL.

Desmopressin acetate (DDAVP^®) should be considered in patients with platelet function disorders, such as von Willebrand disease. Eltrombopag , a thrombopoietin receptor agonist, reduces the need for platelet transfusions and should be considered in patients with chronic liver disease or idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura with platelets less than 50,000/μL [17]. Post-polypectomy bleeding risk seems to be increased in patients taking warfarin or resuming warfarin or heparin within 1 week after polypectomy. Clopidogrel and warfarin should be discontinued 5–10 days and 3–5 days, respectively, before the procedure, or the endoscopy should ideally be postponed if the procedure is an elective one [18].

Post-polypectomy bleeding tends to be associated with the removal of large polyps, use of cutting rather than coagulation current, and transection of a stalk or neck of tissue without cautery or with insufficient cautery [16]. Coagulation (or blended) current instead of cutting current is typically used [12]. When a large polyp with a thick stalk is encountered, epinephrine or saline submucosal injection, placement of a detachable snare (EndoLoop™, Olympus America, Center Valley, PA, USA), and/or endoscopic clip placement may be considered [16, 19]. When a visible vessel is present following polypectomy, clips should be applied [12]. There is no defined “standard of care” in this situation [18]. Nine randomized studies have compared various techniques in the prevention of post-polypectomy bleeding. All studies to date have limitations and, therefore, the results should be interpreted with caution.

In summary, (1) the submucosal injection of saline-epinephrine solution prior to polyp resection can prevent early but not delayed bleeding; (2) loop placement can prevent bleeding, especially in large polyps, but mostly early bleeding; (3) clips may prevent delayed post-polypectomy hemorrhage, but this has not been proven in a randomized trial; and (4) combination modalities may be more effective than a single technique [12].

Patients who undergo uneventful polypectomy need to be informed that delayed post-polypectomy bleeding can occur up to 14 days after their procedure. Resuscitation takes priority when assessing a patient with post-procedural bleeding. The abdomen should be examined for evidence of peritoneal signs. Complete blood count, coagulation parameters, and blood type and crossmatch should be obtained. Aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and anticoagulants should be stopped, if feasible. Patients on warfarin may require reversal with prothrombin complex concentrate or fresh frozen plasma.

Delayed post-polypectomy bleeding most commonly stops spontaneously. If bleeding does not stop, then repeat colonoscopy should be performed. Most post-polypectomy bleeding can be controlled endoscopically. The skill set of any endoscopist who performs colonoscopy must include the ability to achieve hemostasis. Injection of the polypectomy site with dilute epinephrine solution is helpful for persistent venous oozing [16]. Mechanical hemostatic methods, such as hemoclip and EndoLoop™ placement, seem to be effective and are favored over thermal therapies, but controlled data are insufficient to make firm recommendations [12, 16]. The main premise to preferably use mechanical hemostatic devices is to avoid further thermal damage to the post-polypectomy area and potentially decrease the risk of perforation (Fig. 10.1). Band ligation has been successfully applied in a few case reports [20–22]. Careful discharge instructions and extended observation are necessary. Aspirin, NSAIDs, and clopidogrel should be discontinued for 7–10 days, and warfarin should be withheld for at least 48–72 h, if possible [16].

Blood transfusion, hospitalization, and multidisciplinary involvement (GI, interventional radiology, and surgery) may be required in complicated cases. In our institution, we have developed a GI bleeding protocol with multidisciplinary involvement. The protocol is used for any GI bleeding, including post-endoscopy bleeding. The key concepts of our GI bleeding protocol are as follows:

The implementation of this GI bleeding protocol has greatly improved communication and has streamlined patient care at our institution. Importantly, we are no longer caught up in a vicious cycle of one provider recommending a specific therapy (e.g., GI team recommends angiography to be done by interventional radiology) and another provider recommending an alternative strategy (e.g., interventional radiology recommends a bleeding radionuclide scan first instead of angiography). Furthermore, the patient and family do not receive conflicting information. Most importantly, the patient is treated with the agreed upon consensus therapy in a timely manner. We believe that every institution should strongly consider the establishment of such a GI bleeding protocol. The specific criteria to initiate the protocol and the following steps may be different than those described above based on local resources and expertise. The establishment of a multidisciplinary management strategy, however, tends to be labor-intensive. Nevertheless, a multidisciplinary predetermined plan will improve patient care and facilitate communication between physicians and the patient.

Identifying patients at risk and optimizing coagulation abnormalities are mandatory. Controversy remains regarding the appropriate use of platelet and coagulation factor transfusions in high-risk patients, and data are limited. Recommendations regarding warfarin and clopidogrel are similar to those mentioned in the post-polypectomy section [18].

Hemorrhage can be limited by careful technique, including proper orientation of the wire, avoidance of unnecessarily long cuts, and judicious use of the electrosurgical current. The use of pure-cut current has been shown to increase the risk of bleeding. Blended or coagulation current reduces the bleeding risk but may increase the risk of post-ERCP pancreatitis [26]. The Endocut™ mode (ERBE USA, Marietta, GA, USA) or Pulse mode™ (Olympus America, Center Valley, PA, USA) provides computerized control of the electrosurgical generator, and these modes are commonly used due to relative safety in bleeding reduction and a lower incidence of pancreatitis compared to blended current [27]. Balloon dilation of the native papilla is associated with a decreased rate of bleeding, but is to be avoided because of well-documented increased risk of post-ERCP pancreatitis. It may be considered in highly selected cases where sphincterotomy is particularly risky. Specific examples include patients with bile duct stones and significant coagulopathy that cannot be easily corrected and those in whom location of the papilla makes sphincterotomy technically difficult (e.g. intra-diverticular papilla or Billroth II anatomy) [28]. Endoscopic papillary large balloon dilation (EPLBD) following limited endoscopic sphincterotomy is a relatively new technique which has been shown to be effective and safe for the removal of large biliary duct stones [29–31]. Importantly, the use of EPLBD can not only facilitate the extraction of difficult stones, but has not been associated with increased risk of post-ERCP pancreatitis. The use of a covered sphincterotome and prophylactic submucosal injection of hypertonic saline-epinephrine have also been reported to decrease the risk of post-sphincterotomy bleeding, but these techniques have not been incorporated into routine practice [32, 33].

Post-sphincterotomy bleeding often stops spontaneously, except in patients with a bleeding diathesis. Delayed bleeding is defined as occurring after the completion of ERCP, which can happen up to several weeks after the procedure. With delayed bleeding, repeat endoscopic evaluation is recommended before using other modalities. Most immediate and delayed bleeding can be managed with medical treatment and/or endoscopic therapy. Endoscopic techniques include injection therapy with dilute epinephrine, mechanical hemostasis with hemoclip, balloon tamponade or temporary fully covered self-expandable metal stent, and thermal methods (Fig. 10.2). Angiography with embolization or surgery is reserved for patients with refractory bleeding.

Colonic perforation is obvious when a mural tear with visualization of intra-abdominal organs or serosal fat is seen at endoscopy. Failure to maintain adequate visualization of the lumen due to poor distention may be due to perforation and leakage of air into the peritoneum. It is important to recognize markers, such as the target sign following EMR (Fig. 10.3), and close the defect accordingly [41]. Careful analysis of the post-EMR specimen and resection defect may reveal a target sign, which is an endoscopic finding of inadvertent muscularis propria resection and potential perforation [41]. Recognition of this endoscopic sign allows for prompt endoscopic treatment.